Ginseng - Australian grown American Ginseng root | American Ginseng 500 capsules
Benefits of Ginseng
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We have grouped detailed information on the medicinal effects of American
ginseng under the following headings:
Adaptogen
Ginseng is considered an adaptogen, meaning it has a normalising action irrespective of the direction of the disease-forming process. It has the ability to boost non-specific resistance of the body to a wide range of chemical, physical, psychological, and biological stressors. Adaptogens such as ginseng have the unique ability to switch from stimulating to sedating effects based on the bodies needs. Hence ginseng provides an adaptation to stress, enhances physical and mental performance, reduces fatigue, improves mood and promotes vitality and quality of life.
Adaptogenic qualities of ginseng can be partially explained by the complexity of the natural bioactive substances present in the ginseng root. There is a wide variety of ginsenosides, polysaccharides and other substances, some of which when considered individually have the opposite effect on the body to other substances in the root. Thus if only some of these substances are taken, or when some are lost during processing, the remarkable adaptogenic effect of ginseng could be lost or weakened.
Antioxidant
Ginseng is considered to be an anti-aging herb. Presumably this is partially due to the many beneficial effects of ginseng, and partially due to its antioxidant properties. Oxidation results in the generation of free radicals that damage tissue and can lead to cancer. Oxidation of low density lipoprotein (Ox-LDL) is involved in hardening of the arteries (artherosclerosis).
The anti-oxidant effects of American ginseng are well documented in the literature. It chelates metal ions and scavenges free radicals. Ginsenosides Rb1 and Rg1 have been found to inhibit lipid peroxidation in rat liver and brain microsomes.
Hu-Chun and Kitts (Journal of the American Oil Chemists Society, 2001) found that American ginseng showed higher affinity to scavenge free radicals than Korean ginseng
(P < 0.05) and also delayed lipid peroxidation longer
(P < 0.05). The difference appeared to be related to their different Rb1 and Rb2 content.
Chemotherapy agents such as cisplatin cause nausea and vomiting due to oxidant gut injury. Concurrent medication with ginseng reduces these side effects.
Cancer
The ability of American ginseng to help prevent the development of cancer is partly related to its antioxidant properties and partly its general adaptogenic properties. Despite the existence of some scientific papers claiming that ginseng can cure or significantly retard the growth of existing cancers, ginseng will not cure cancer. However ginseng will improve general well being in both healthy and sick people, and aid in the management of recovery from a wide range of illnesses. It may also help more directly in the management of some specific cancers (see below).
Published epidemiological studies have found an association between ginseng intake and a decreased incidence and growth of cancers. A 1995 Korean study found that people taking ginseng had a significantly decreased risk of developing cancer. The overall Odds Ratio was 0.30 (95%CI+0.48-0.68). Risk reduced with increased frequency and duration of intake, and was dose dependant. The Odds Ratio for various cancers was: lip, oral cavity & pharynx 0.47; oesophagus 0.20; stomach 0.36; colon/rectum 0.42; liver 0.48; pancreas 0.22, larynx 0.18, lung 0.55; ovary 0.15. No association was found with cancers of breast, cervix, bladder, and thyroid gland.
Japanese research in vitro and in mice found that ginsenoside metabolites not only inhibit the spread of cancer cells around the body but also induce apoptosis of the cells.
Breast cancer:
Considerable research has taken place on the effect of American ginseng on preventing, and in the management of, breast cancer. US studies show that although both ginseng and estradiol induced the expression of pS2 RNA in MCF-7 breast cancer cell lines, estradiol had a proliferative effect but ginseng did not have significant effect on cell proliferation. Several US studies demonstrate American ginseng s estrogen-like effect on estrogen receptors, but without the cell proliferative effect of oestrogenic drugs. Duda et al (Annals of Surgical Oncology 1996) hypothesized that because ginseng does not exhibit a proliferative effect, it may play a protective role against breast cancer. This research also found that concurrent use of American ginseng and breast cancer therapeutics resulted in a significant suppression of cell growth for most drugs evaluated (P & pharynx 0.005;). It appears that ginseng may inhibit breast cancer by inducing activation of the p21 gene.
Similar results have been obtained from in vitro and animal studies that demonstrate significant and dose dependent decreases in breast cancer cell growth. American ginseng consistently enhanced the anticancer activity of the chemotherapy drug doxorubicin (DOX) by 8 times, and this combination completely inhibited breast cancer cell growth in mice. There was no change in tumour size when either DOX or ginseng was given alone. With DOX alone, body weight significantly decreased, but body weight remained constant when DOX was combined with ginseng.
The antioxidant properties of American ginseng are useful in reducing some side effects of chemotherapy drugs (see antioxidant section).
In their scientific review, Abascal & Yarnell (Alternative and Complementary Therapies, 2001) state that research indicates that we may benefit our patients by giving ginseng a greater role in our treatment of women with breast cancer or women who are at high risk of developing breast cancer.
Colon cancer:
Several scientific studies suggest a protective effect for American ginseng powder when fed to animals in intestine/colon cancer models. The authors suggested that it exerted beneficial effects by decreasing the amount of pre-cancerous lesions and inducing apoptosis in the large intestine.
Brain tumours:
Korean research published in Jan 2006 found that compound K (a ginseng saponin metabolite) inhibits the proteinase (MM-9) implicated in the invasion and vascularisation of malignant tumours. They concluded that compound K might have therapeutic potential for controlling the growth and invasiveness of brain tumours.
Cardiovascular
Artherosclerosis:
Scientific evidence strongly suggests that American ginseng helps protect against hardening of the arteries (arthrosclerosis) and can reduce the damage caused by heart attacks. It has a net neutral effect on blood pressure, though as an adaptogen it is claimed to normalise it.
American ginseng saponins reduce low density lipoprotein (LDL) oxidation and therefore protect against the detrimental actions of Ox-LDL (they are believed to be involved in the pathogenesis of arthrosclerosis). PPD-type ginsenosides have stronger anti-arthrosclerosis activity than PPT-type, and also have stronger activity in reducing serum lipid levels.
Heart arrhythmia:
Several Chinese scientific papers have found that saponins from American ginseng can both decrease (Re, Rb3) and increase (pseudoginsenoside-F11) papillary heart muscle contractility. Anti-arrhythmic action appeared to be related to the blockage of cation currents in myocardial cells (mainly calcium but possibly sodium and potassium ions too). At the International Ginseng Symposium (Vancouver 1994) YYY Wong stated that American ginseng can be used to boost cAMP levels in the myocardial cells, prolong the cardiac cycle, reduce the heart rate, and control symptoms of heart palpitation.
Blood pressure:
American ginseng has no net effect on blood pressure. Nevertheless the American Journal of Chinese Medicine (Vol 29, No.s 3-4, pp 567-569) described a case history of a 53 year old man with hypertension and mild chest pain, and diagnosed with early stage coronary heart disease. His chest pains stopped and blood pressure dropped following regular treatment with American ginseng.
Circulatory system:
Traditional claims that ginseng normalises the circulatory system have been scientifically investigated. Laboratory research in the USA found that ginseng reduced thrombin-induced endothelium release, and may facilitate hemodynamic balance of vascular endothelial cells. Chinese trials in humans found that treating patients with American ginseng before and during heart surgery helped protect the myocardium (note: this pre-surgical application should be balanced against ginseng's blood thinning activity).
Blood clotting:
Research in Japan found that ginsenoside Rg1 inhibits adrenaline and thrombin induced human platelet aggregation (and 5-hydroxytryptamine release from platelets) in dose dependent manner. They hypothesised that it may therefore help treat arthrosclerosis and thrombosis. American ginseng reduces the anticoagulant effect of the blood thinning agent warfarin.
Stress
American ginseng is known by the Chinese as the "cooling" ginseng, because it stimulates the Yin. It is believed to be more effective in combating the effects of stress than Korean ginseng, which is considered warming and stimulates the Yang.
Ginseng has traditionally been used to treat insomnia, nervous dyspepsia, stomach cramps, and other signs of stress. Because of its ability to reduce stress, some herbal specialists consider ginseng as part of the treatment for depression. A study of 501 men and women in Mexico City found significant improvements in quality of life measures (energy, sleep, sex life, personal satisfaction, well-being) in those taking American ginseng.
Animal experiments have demonstrated the ability of American ginseng root powder to significantly reverse acute stress-induced changes in spleen weight and plasma and stress-associated plasma enzymes (ALT, AST, and CK). It also significantly reversed chronic stress-induced gastric ulcers and adrenal gland weight changes.
Stress can to lead to the development of many types of diseases. The adrenal gland is an indispensable organ that responds to stress. It secretes catacholamines and cortisol which stimulate the body to respond to stress. However long term or excessive stress results in over-secretion of catecholamines and cortisol, leading to over-reaction and exhaustion of the organs. This results in gastrointestinal symptoms (anorexia, dyspepsia, gastric ulcer etc), fatigue, psychoneurosis (anxiety, depression, amnesia etc), hypertension and immunosuppression. Laboratory experiments show that the ginsenoside fraction of ginseng (mainly the protopanaxatriols), and in particular Rg2 and the metabolite M4, reduce the secretion of catecholamines by the adrenal gland. American ginseng appears to inhibit catecholamine secretion by blocking acetylcholine induced sodium ion influx into the cells through nicotinic acetyl choline receptor-operated cation channels.
Glucose Metabolism and Diabetes
Ginseng has been commonly used in Oriental medicine to treat diabetes-like conditions. It is also recommended and used in North America for this purpose. There is a large body of scientific evidence on the beneficial effect of American ginseng for use in the management of diabetes and enhanced energy metabolism in the body in non-diabetic people.
Research in the USA demonstrates that American ginseng root powder significantly (p < 0.05) reduces post-prandial glucose in Type-2 diabetes, and also improves glucose tolerance in non-diabetic people. The dose generally used was 3g, and increasing this dose did not appear to confer addition benefit.
A 2003 review published in the US journal Diabetes Care examined all available clinical studies on herbal, vitamin and mineral supplements claimed to influence glycaemic control (that were published in English).108 trials were examined, and the quality of randomised controlled trials was assessed using the Jadad scale. The review concluded that the best evidence for efficacy from adequately designed randomised trials is available for Coccinia and Panax quinuefolius (American ginseng).
In the Journal American College of Nutrition (2003), Sievenpiper reported that American ginseng was more effective than Korean ginseng in lowering blood glucose. He speculated that differences in the levels of certain ginsenosides between the two species were responsible for their differing actions.
Korean and US research published in Jan 2006 demonstrated that PPT ginsenosides (particularly Rf) increase the activity of key receptors that regulate lipid and glucose metabolism and fat differentiation. The authors concluded that these ginsenosides can improve insulin resistance associated with diabetes.
Chinese research (2003) has found that both American and Korean ginseng saponins inhibited the activity of pancreatic lipase by 90% and 35.2% respectively. Rc, Rb1 & Rb2 inhibited pancreatic lipase by 100, 96 and 97% respectively. They concluded that these results indicate the potential use of these saponins to treat obesity.
Immunity
It has been traditionally thought that ginseng enhances the immune system, and helps protect the body from infectious diseases. Recent research in both humans and animals supports this belief.
Influenza:
Two randomised double-blind placebo-controlled trials published in the American Journal of Geriatrics (2004) found that an aqueous extract of American ginseng significantly reduced the incidence of laboratory-confirmed influenza in elderly people. The studies found that American ginseng stimulated the production of T-lymphocytes in spleen cells.
Canadian research (2005) found that a moderate dose of American ginseng root extract over a 4 month period significantly reduced the mean number of colds (0.68 vs 0.93); the proportion of people who experience two or more colds (10% vs 22.8%); the severity of symptoms (score 77.5 vs 112.5); and the number of days cold symptoms were reported (10.8 vs 16.5). 130 people took ginseng and 149 took placebo in this randomised double-blind, placebo-controlled trial, which commenced at the start of the influenza season.
General immunity:
Another US study in mice found that American ginseng activated macrophages in the abdominal cavity, leading to increased production of interleukin-1, interleukin-6, TNF alpha and nitric oxide, and therefore improved cell-mediated immunity. It also significantly increased interleukin (produced by white blood cells to regulate immunity) production in mice in a dose dependent manner.
Borchers et al, in the International Journal of Immunotherapy (1998), found that American ginseng extract significantly stimulated lymphocyte proliferation on 20 volunteers in vitro (p & pharynx 0.00001;). Interestingly, this researcher found that one brand of American ginseng had little effect, nor did the Korean ginseng tested.
A Japanese study found that polysaccharides in American ginseng increased the production of various interleukins, and appeared to do this using at least two different mechanisms.
Swedish and Chinese research (both in 2005) found that when ginsenoside Rb1 is added to pig and chicken vaccines, the short and long term antibody response is increased.
Memory & Learning
Native Americans took ginseng root as a tonic to increase mental powers, and to help the mind. Salim (1997) hypothesised that American ginseng may exert beneficial effects on memory and learning through its action on the cholinergic system. He found that ginsenoside Rb1 acts specifically on certain aspects of the cholinergic and neurotrophic systems, and increases the expression of choline acetyltransferase and trkA mRNAs in the basal forebrain, and nerve growth factor mRNA in the hippocampus. Other neurotrophins, genes encoding polypeptides and amyloid protein precursor were not affected.
Several studies have demonstrated the protective effect of American ginseng (and ginsenoside Rb1 in particular) against scopolamine-induced amnesia in rats, and increased choline uptake at their synapses. German research shows that Rb1 and Rg1 both enhance neurite growth, and reverse MPTP-induced cell death.
Numerous animal studies demonstrate learning and memory benefits from ginseng. US research on chicks show that Rb1 can improve memory for a visual discrimination task, and that this may be due to reduced anxiety. Korean work on mice showed that Rb1 and Rg1 enhance spatial learning ability by increasing hypocampal synaptic density without changing plasticity of individual synapses. Chinese workers found that Rb1 or Rg1 fed to mice accelerated their body and mind development, and helped memory development in step down and step through avoidance response tests. Rb1 or Rg1 administration for 4 weeks increased the number of synapses in the hippocampus.
Alzheimer's disease & Brain aging:
There are indications that American ginseng may assist with the management of Alzheimer's disease (AD). AD is marked by the presence of neurofibrillary tangles and plaques containing beta-amyloid. Canadian work on rats suggests that the anti-amnestic effect of ginseng may be due to the actions of Rb1 in minimising the inhibitory effect of beta-amyloid peptides. Japanese research (Tohda et al, Neuropsychopharmology, 2004) demonstrates that protopanaxadiol saponins (such as Rb1) are metabolised by intestinal bacteria to M1 (20-O-beta-D-glucopyranosyl-20(S)-protopanaxadiol). Feeding either Rb1 or M1 to mice with Alzheimer's disease (caused by Abeta injection) caused recovery of impaired spatial memory. Axons regenerated but not dendrites. M1 was shown to be effective in vitro and in vivo, indicating that oral ginseng drugs containing ppd-type saponins may reactivate neuronal function in Alzheimer's disease.
Brain aging is associated with reduced nicotinic receptor binding, and receptor stimulation increases binding. In laboratory experiments, both American and Korean ginseng produce dose dependent displacement of nicotine from human brain cerebral cortex membranes.
Nervous System
Strokes:
There is good evidence that American ginseng helps protect nervous tissue during strokes. Neuronal damage during ischaemia has been associated with abnormal sodium ion fluxes. American ginseng, and also ginsenoside Rb1, blocked these fluxes in a dose and voltage dependant manner. Japanese research also found that Rb1 gave (hippocampal) neurone protection during ischaemia - the study suggested that it scavenged free radicals which are overproduced in situ after brain ischaemia and reperfusion. It concluded that this may "validate the empirical usage of ginseng root over thousands of years for the prevention of cerebrovascular diseases."
Research published in Korea found that exposing young rats to hypoxic conditions on 3 consecutive days killed 50% of them. Pre-treating with ginsenoside Rb1 reduced deaths to 12%, and also significantly reduced the recovery time from hypoxia-related symptoms in surviving rats. Rb1 also significantly reduced LDH release from primary hippocampal neurones. Pre-treatment with Rb1 also increased Ca2+ independent kinase activity 48 hours after hypoxia. A similar Japanese study on gerbils found similar results for Rb1, and demonstrated that neither ginsenoside Rg1 nor Ro produced this effect.
Brain aging:
American ginseng can help protect nerve cells from the aging process. Beta-amyloid-related peptides play a significant part in memory degeneration in the elderly. Canadian work on rats suggests the anti-amnestic effect of Rb1 may be by minimising the inhibitory effect of beta-amyloid peptides (also see Alzheimer's disease in section on memory and learning).
Parkinson's disease:
Several scientific studies in China have found that pre-treating mice with ginsenoside Rg1 protected them from developing a syndrome similar to Parkinson's disease (neuronal loss/apoptosis in substantia nigra), caused by injecting with the neurotoxin MPTP. Rg1 reduced the loss of dopaminergic neurons and apoptosis (genetically programmed cell death) caused by MPTP (p 0.01). This neuroprotective effect is potentially due to its antioxidant property, and its inhibitory effect on JNK signalling cascade activation. The hallmark of Parkinson s disease is the loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra, probably due to ongoing oxidative stress. The authors therefore postulate that Rg1 may help prevent and treat Parkinson's disease, but cautioned that further research is needed.
Motor Neurone Disease:
Another Canadian (2000) study examined the effect of American ginseng on motor neurone disease - given previous research that showed that ginseng is an antioxidant; it reduced neuronal death during cerebral ischaemia, and improved learning/memory in rats. The authors concluded that American ginseng may delay the onset of symptoms of motor neurone disease (116d vs 94d, P 0.001) and increase survival (139d vs 132d, P 0.05) in transgenic mice.
Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder:
A Canadian (2001) study found that American ginseng, when combined with Ginkgo biloba extracts, improved symptoms of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. The open, uncontrolled study of 4 weeks duration included 36 children. 44% had fewer social problems, and 74% improved on the Conner's Parent Rating. 14% reported adverse events of which 2 (6%) were considered related to the medication.
Chronic pain:
A 2001 study in Hong Kong found that mice fed an extract of American ginseng spent significantly less time biting injured paws. The authors concluded that ginseng may have an analgesic effect in the chronic pain model.
Stamina and Endurance
Ginseng appears to improve endurance by exerting an effect on the respiratory system and also on energy metabolism.
A placebo controlled trial on 15 young healthy men found a significant reduction in ventilation during submaximal exercise following ingestion of 1 gram American ginseng powder. The results suggest that ginseng can increase respiratory endurance and support the observation of Forgo (1983) that American ginseng improves cardiovascular endurance during submaximal work.
In a Canadian study, injecting rats with ginsenosides Rg1 or Rb1 significantly prolonged aerobic exercise endurance of non-trained animals. Both plasma free fatty acid (FFA) and glucose levels were raised during exercise. Liver and muscle glycogen levels were higher in treated animals after exhaustive exercise. The author hypothesised that both Rg1 and Rb1 altered fuel homeostasis during prolonged exercise by increasing FFA utilisation over glucose for cellular energy demands.
Sexual Function (male & female)
Virility:
Ginseng has been traditionally used to treat sexual impotency and increase virility. The US National Plant Data Center states that "in China, it (American ginseng) is a panacea for sexual impotency". The University of Maryland Medical Center reported that a study of 46 men found an increase in sperm count as well as motility.
Aphrodisiac:
Ginseng was used by both the ancient Chinese and Native Americans as an aphrodisiac, and it is widely used for this purpose today. An Italian review stated that American ginseng has aphrodisiac and adaptogenic properties that enhances physical performance (including sexual), promotes vitality and increases resistance to stress and aging. The author stated that the adaptogenic properties of ginseng are believed to affect the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, resulting in elevated plasma corticotrophin and corticosteroid levels.
Sexual dysfunction:
Animal studies in the USA support the use of American ginseng in the treatment of sexual dysfunction. There is evidence that ginsenosides can facilitate penile erection by directly inducing vasodilation and relaxation of the corpus cavernosum. This appeared to be moderated by nitric oxide release from endothelial cells and perivascular nerves. A US researcher found that American ginseng also affects the central nervous system and has been shown to alter the activity of hypothalamic catecholamines involved in the facilitation of copulatory behaviour and hormone secretion in mice. Pre-treatment with American ginseng reduced the period between successive mountings and also successive ejaculations. She postulated that the effects of ginseng may not be due to hormonal secretion, but a result of the direct effect on nervous and gonadal tissues.
When Chinese researchers performed unpleasant things on mice, their mounting behaviour and plasma testosterone were adversely affected. Injecting them with ginsenoside Rb1 prevented this problem.
Female fertility, menopause & menstrual problems:
American ginseng has some estrogenic properties that may be useful in treating menopause symptoms, but without carcinogenic tendency. It was used in traditional Native American medicine to increase fertility and treat menstrual problems. The Cherokees referred to ginseng as "The Plant of Life" and used it to help relieve female problems such as menstrual cramps and excessive bleeding.
The US dietary and Supplement Information Bureau states that ginseng is commonly used to treat menopausal symptoms. It cites a study involving 384 postmenopausal women which compared the use of ginseng to a placebo for relief of menopause related symptoms. Benefit was seen for depression and general well-being and health. However no advantage was seen for hot flashes and physical changes that occur to the vagina and surrounding area.
Another study supported improvement in vaginal lubrication in menopausal women.
Adaptogen
Ginseng is considered an adaptogen, meaning it has a normalising action irrespective of the direction of the disease-forming process. It has the ability to boost non-specific resistance of the body to a wide range of chemical, physical, psychological, and biological stressors. Adaptogens such as ginseng have the unique ability to switch from stimulating to sedating effects based on the bodies needs. Hence ginseng provides an adaptation to stress, enhances physical and mental performance, reduces fatigue, improves mood and promotes vitality and quality of life.
Adaptogenic qualities of ginseng can be partially explained by the complexity of the natural bioactive substances present in the ginseng root. There is a wide variety of ginsenosides, polysaccharides and other substances, some of which when considered individually have the opposite effect on the body to other substances in the root. Thus if only some of these substances are taken, or when some are lost during processing, the remarkable adaptogenic effect of ginseng could be lost or weakened.
Antioxidant
Ginseng is considered to be an anti-aging herb. Presumably this is partially due to the many beneficial effects of ginseng, and partially due to its antioxidant properties. Oxidation results in the generation of free radicals that damage tissue and can lead to cancer. Oxidation of low density lipoprotein (Ox-LDL) is involved in hardening of the arteries (artherosclerosis).
The anti-oxidant effects of American ginseng are well documented in the literature. It chelates metal ions and scavenges free radicals. Ginsenosides Rb1 and Rg1 have been found to inhibit lipid peroxidation in rat liver and brain microsomes.
Hu-Chun and Kitts (Journal of the American Oil Chemists Society, 2001) found that American ginseng showed higher affinity to scavenge free radicals than Korean ginseng
(P < 0.05) and also delayed lipid peroxidation longer
(P < 0.05). The difference appeared to be related to their different Rb1 and Rb2 content.
Chemotherapy agents such as cisplatin cause nausea and vomiting due to oxidant gut injury. Concurrent medication with ginseng reduces these side effects.
Cancer
The ability of American ginseng to help prevent the development of cancer is partly related to its antioxidant properties and partly its general adaptogenic properties. Despite the existence of some scientific papers claiming that ginseng can cure or significantly retard the growth of existing cancers, ginseng will not cure cancer. However ginseng will improve general well being in both healthy and sick people, and aid in the management of recovery from a wide range of illnesses. It may also help more directly in the management of some specific cancers (see below).
Published epidemiological studies have found an association between ginseng intake and a decreased incidence and growth of cancers. A 1995 Korean study found that people taking ginseng had a significantly decreased risk of developing cancer. The overall Odds Ratio was 0.30 (95%CI+0.48-0.68). Risk reduced with increased frequency and duration of intake, and was dose dependant. The Odds Ratio for various cancers was: lip, oral cavity & pharynx 0.47; oesophagus 0.20; stomach 0.36; colon/rectum 0.42; liver 0.48; pancreas 0.22, larynx 0.18, lung 0.55; ovary 0.15. No association was found with cancers of breast, cervix, bladder, and thyroid gland.
Japanese research in vitro and in mice found that ginsenoside metabolites not only inhibit the spread of cancer cells around the body but also induce apoptosis of the cells.
Breast cancer:
Considerable research has taken place on the effect of American ginseng on preventing, and in the management of, breast cancer. US studies show that although both ginseng and estradiol induced the expression of pS2 RNA in MCF-7 breast cancer cell lines, estradiol had a proliferative effect but ginseng did not have significant effect on cell proliferation. Several US studies demonstrate American ginseng s estrogen-like effect on estrogen receptors, but without the cell proliferative effect of oestrogenic drugs. Duda et al (Annals of Surgical Oncology 1996) hypothesized that because ginseng does not exhibit a proliferative effect, it may play a protective role against breast cancer. This research also found that concurrent use of American ginseng and breast cancer therapeutics resulted in a significant suppression of cell growth for most drugs evaluated (P & pharynx 0.005;). It appears that ginseng may inhibit breast cancer by inducing activation of the p21 gene.
Similar results have been obtained from in vitro and animal studies that demonstrate significant and dose dependent decreases in breast cancer cell growth. American ginseng consistently enhanced the anticancer activity of the chemotherapy drug doxorubicin (DOX) by 8 times, and this combination completely inhibited breast cancer cell growth in mice. There was no change in tumour size when either DOX or ginseng was given alone. With DOX alone, body weight significantly decreased, but body weight remained constant when DOX was combined with ginseng.
The antioxidant properties of American ginseng are useful in reducing some side effects of chemotherapy drugs (see antioxidant section).
In their scientific review, Abascal & Yarnell (Alternative and Complementary Therapies, 2001) state that research indicates that we may benefit our patients by giving ginseng a greater role in our treatment of women with breast cancer or women who are at high risk of developing breast cancer.
Colon cancer:
Several scientific studies suggest a protective effect for American ginseng powder when fed to animals in intestine/colon cancer models. The authors suggested that it exerted beneficial effects by decreasing the amount of pre-cancerous lesions and inducing apoptosis in the large intestine.
Brain tumours:
Korean research published in Jan 2006 found that compound K (a ginseng saponin metabolite) inhibits the proteinase (MM-9) implicated in the invasion and vascularisation of malignant tumours. They concluded that compound K might have therapeutic potential for controlling the growth and invasiveness of brain tumours.
Cardiovascular
Artherosclerosis:
Scientific evidence strongly suggests that American ginseng helps protect against hardening of the arteries (arthrosclerosis) and can reduce the damage caused by heart attacks. It has a net neutral effect on blood pressure, though as an adaptogen it is claimed to normalise it.
American ginseng saponins reduce low density lipoprotein (LDL) oxidation and therefore protect against the detrimental actions of Ox-LDL (they are believed to be involved in the pathogenesis of arthrosclerosis). PPD-type ginsenosides have stronger anti-arthrosclerosis activity than PPT-type, and also have stronger activity in reducing serum lipid levels.
Heart arrhythmia:
Several Chinese scientific papers have found that saponins from American ginseng can both decrease (Re, Rb3) and increase (pseudoginsenoside-F11) papillary heart muscle contractility. Anti-arrhythmic action appeared to be related to the blockage of cation currents in myocardial cells (mainly calcium but possibly sodium and potassium ions too). At the International Ginseng Symposium (Vancouver 1994) YYY Wong stated that American ginseng can be used to boost cAMP levels in the myocardial cells, prolong the cardiac cycle, reduce the heart rate, and control symptoms of heart palpitation.
Blood pressure:
American ginseng has no net effect on blood pressure. Nevertheless the American Journal of Chinese Medicine (Vol 29, No.s 3-4, pp 567-569) described a case history of a 53 year old man with hypertension and mild chest pain, and diagnosed with early stage coronary heart disease. His chest pains stopped and blood pressure dropped following regular treatment with American ginseng.
Circulatory system:
Traditional claims that ginseng normalises the circulatory system have been scientifically investigated. Laboratory research in the USA found that ginseng reduced thrombin-induced endothelium release, and may facilitate hemodynamic balance of vascular endothelial cells. Chinese trials in humans found that treating patients with American ginseng before and during heart surgery helped protect the myocardium (note: this pre-surgical application should be balanced against ginseng's blood thinning activity).
Blood clotting:
Research in Japan found that ginsenoside Rg1 inhibits adrenaline and thrombin induced human platelet aggregation (and 5-hydroxytryptamine release from platelets) in dose dependent manner. They hypothesised that it may therefore help treat arthrosclerosis and thrombosis. American ginseng reduces the anticoagulant effect of the blood thinning agent warfarin.
Stress
American ginseng is known by the Chinese as the "cooling" ginseng, because it stimulates the Yin. It is believed to be more effective in combating the effects of stress than Korean ginseng, which is considered warming and stimulates the Yang.
Ginseng has traditionally been used to treat insomnia, nervous dyspepsia, stomach cramps, and other signs of stress. Because of its ability to reduce stress, some herbal specialists consider ginseng as part of the treatment for depression. A study of 501 men and women in Mexico City found significant improvements in quality of life measures (energy, sleep, sex life, personal satisfaction, well-being) in those taking American ginseng.
Animal experiments have demonstrated the ability of American ginseng root powder to significantly reverse acute stress-induced changes in spleen weight and plasma and stress-associated plasma enzymes (ALT, AST, and CK). It also significantly reversed chronic stress-induced gastric ulcers and adrenal gland weight changes.
Stress can to lead to the development of many types of diseases. The adrenal gland is an indispensable organ that responds to stress. It secretes catacholamines and cortisol which stimulate the body to respond to stress. However long term or excessive stress results in over-secretion of catecholamines and cortisol, leading to over-reaction and exhaustion of the organs. This results in gastrointestinal symptoms (anorexia, dyspepsia, gastric ulcer etc), fatigue, psychoneurosis (anxiety, depression, amnesia etc), hypertension and immunosuppression. Laboratory experiments show that the ginsenoside fraction of ginseng (mainly the protopanaxatriols), and in particular Rg2 and the metabolite M4, reduce the secretion of catecholamines by the adrenal gland. American ginseng appears to inhibit catecholamine secretion by blocking acetylcholine induced sodium ion influx into the cells through nicotinic acetyl choline receptor-operated cation channels.
Glucose Metabolism and Diabetes
Ginseng has been commonly used in Oriental medicine to treat diabetes-like conditions. It is also recommended and used in North America for this purpose. There is a large body of scientific evidence on the beneficial effect of American ginseng for use in the management of diabetes and enhanced energy metabolism in the body in non-diabetic people.
Research in the USA demonstrates that American ginseng root powder significantly (p < 0.05) reduces post-prandial glucose in Type-2 diabetes, and also improves glucose tolerance in non-diabetic people. The dose generally used was 3g, and increasing this dose did not appear to confer addition benefit.
A 2003 review published in the US journal Diabetes Care examined all available clinical studies on herbal, vitamin and mineral supplements claimed to influence glycaemic control (that were published in English).108 trials were examined, and the quality of randomised controlled trials was assessed using the Jadad scale. The review concluded that the best evidence for efficacy from adequately designed randomised trials is available for Coccinia and Panax quinuefolius (American ginseng).
In the Journal American College of Nutrition (2003), Sievenpiper reported that American ginseng was more effective than Korean ginseng in lowering blood glucose. He speculated that differences in the levels of certain ginsenosides between the two species were responsible for their differing actions.
Korean and US research published in Jan 2006 demonstrated that PPT ginsenosides (particularly Rf) increase the activity of key receptors that regulate lipid and glucose metabolism and fat differentiation. The authors concluded that these ginsenosides can improve insulin resistance associated with diabetes.
Chinese research (2003) has found that both American and Korean ginseng saponins inhibited the activity of pancreatic lipase by 90% and 35.2% respectively. Rc, Rb1 & Rb2 inhibited pancreatic lipase by 100, 96 and 97% respectively. They concluded that these results indicate the potential use of these saponins to treat obesity.
Immunity
It has been traditionally thought that ginseng enhances the immune system, and helps protect the body from infectious diseases. Recent research in both humans and animals supports this belief.
Influenza:
Two randomised double-blind placebo-controlled trials published in the American Journal of Geriatrics (2004) found that an aqueous extract of American ginseng significantly reduced the incidence of laboratory-confirmed influenza in elderly people. The studies found that American ginseng stimulated the production of T-lymphocytes in spleen cells.
Canadian research (2005) found that a moderate dose of American ginseng root extract over a 4 month period significantly reduced the mean number of colds (0.68 vs 0.93); the proportion of people who experience two or more colds (10% vs 22.8%); the severity of symptoms (score 77.5 vs 112.5); and the number of days cold symptoms were reported (10.8 vs 16.5). 130 people took ginseng and 149 took placebo in this randomised double-blind, placebo-controlled trial, which commenced at the start of the influenza season.
General immunity:
Another US study in mice found that American ginseng activated macrophages in the abdominal cavity, leading to increased production of interleukin-1, interleukin-6, TNF alpha and nitric oxide, and therefore improved cell-mediated immunity. It also significantly increased interleukin (produced by white blood cells to regulate immunity) production in mice in a dose dependent manner.
Borchers et al, in the International Journal of Immunotherapy (1998), found that American ginseng extract significantly stimulated lymphocyte proliferation on 20 volunteers in vitro (p & pharynx 0.00001;). Interestingly, this researcher found that one brand of American ginseng had little effect, nor did the Korean ginseng tested.
A Japanese study found that polysaccharides in American ginseng increased the production of various interleukins, and appeared to do this using at least two different mechanisms.
Swedish and Chinese research (both in 2005) found that when ginsenoside Rb1 is added to pig and chicken vaccines, the short and long term antibody response is increased.
Memory & Learning
Native Americans took ginseng root as a tonic to increase mental powers, and to help the mind. Salim (1997) hypothesised that American ginseng may exert beneficial effects on memory and learning through its action on the cholinergic system. He found that ginsenoside Rb1 acts specifically on certain aspects of the cholinergic and neurotrophic systems, and increases the expression of choline acetyltransferase and trkA mRNAs in the basal forebrain, and nerve growth factor mRNA in the hippocampus. Other neurotrophins, genes encoding polypeptides and amyloid protein precursor were not affected.
Several studies have demonstrated the protective effect of American ginseng (and ginsenoside Rb1 in particular) against scopolamine-induced amnesia in rats, and increased choline uptake at their synapses. German research shows that Rb1 and Rg1 both enhance neurite growth, and reverse MPTP-induced cell death.
Numerous animal studies demonstrate learning and memory benefits from ginseng. US research on chicks show that Rb1 can improve memory for a visual discrimination task, and that this may be due to reduced anxiety. Korean work on mice showed that Rb1 and Rg1 enhance spatial learning ability by increasing hypocampal synaptic density without changing plasticity of individual synapses. Chinese workers found that Rb1 or Rg1 fed to mice accelerated their body and mind development, and helped memory development in step down and step through avoidance response tests. Rb1 or Rg1 administration for 4 weeks increased the number of synapses in the hippocampus.
Alzheimer's disease & Brain aging:
There are indications that American ginseng may assist with the management of Alzheimer's disease (AD). AD is marked by the presence of neurofibrillary tangles and plaques containing beta-amyloid. Canadian work on rats suggests that the anti-amnestic effect of ginseng may be due to the actions of Rb1 in minimising the inhibitory effect of beta-amyloid peptides. Japanese research (Tohda et al, Neuropsychopharmology, 2004) demonstrates that protopanaxadiol saponins (such as Rb1) are metabolised by intestinal bacteria to M1 (20-O-beta-D-glucopyranosyl-20(S)-protopanaxadiol). Feeding either Rb1 or M1 to mice with Alzheimer's disease (caused by Abeta injection) caused recovery of impaired spatial memory. Axons regenerated but not dendrites. M1 was shown to be effective in vitro and in vivo, indicating that oral ginseng drugs containing ppd-type saponins may reactivate neuronal function in Alzheimer's disease.
Brain aging is associated with reduced nicotinic receptor binding, and receptor stimulation increases binding. In laboratory experiments, both American and Korean ginseng produce dose dependent displacement of nicotine from human brain cerebral cortex membranes.
Nervous System
Strokes:
There is good evidence that American ginseng helps protect nervous tissue during strokes. Neuronal damage during ischaemia has been associated with abnormal sodium ion fluxes. American ginseng, and also ginsenoside Rb1, blocked these fluxes in a dose and voltage dependant manner. Japanese research also found that Rb1 gave (hippocampal) neurone protection during ischaemia - the study suggested that it scavenged free radicals which are overproduced in situ after brain ischaemia and reperfusion. It concluded that this may "validate the empirical usage of ginseng root over thousands of years for the prevention of cerebrovascular diseases."
Research published in Korea found that exposing young rats to hypoxic conditions on 3 consecutive days killed 50% of them. Pre-treating with ginsenoside Rb1 reduced deaths to 12%, and also significantly reduced the recovery time from hypoxia-related symptoms in surviving rats. Rb1 also significantly reduced LDH release from primary hippocampal neurones. Pre-treatment with Rb1 also increased Ca2+ independent kinase activity 48 hours after hypoxia. A similar Japanese study on gerbils found similar results for Rb1, and demonstrated that neither ginsenoside Rg1 nor Ro produced this effect.
Brain aging:
American ginseng can help protect nerve cells from the aging process. Beta-amyloid-related peptides play a significant part in memory degeneration in the elderly. Canadian work on rats suggests the anti-amnestic effect of Rb1 may be by minimising the inhibitory effect of beta-amyloid peptides (also see Alzheimer's disease in section on memory and learning).
Parkinson's disease:
Several scientific studies in China have found that pre-treating mice with ginsenoside Rg1 protected them from developing a syndrome similar to Parkinson's disease (neuronal loss/apoptosis in substantia nigra), caused by injecting with the neurotoxin MPTP. Rg1 reduced the loss of dopaminergic neurons and apoptosis (genetically programmed cell death) caused by MPTP (p 0.01). This neuroprotective effect is potentially due to its antioxidant property, and its inhibitory effect on JNK signalling cascade activation. The hallmark of Parkinson s disease is the loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra, probably due to ongoing oxidative stress. The authors therefore postulate that Rg1 may help prevent and treat Parkinson's disease, but cautioned that further research is needed.
Motor Neurone Disease:
Another Canadian (2000) study examined the effect of American ginseng on motor neurone disease - given previous research that showed that ginseng is an antioxidant; it reduced neuronal death during cerebral ischaemia, and improved learning/memory in rats. The authors concluded that American ginseng may delay the onset of symptoms of motor neurone disease (116d vs 94d, P 0.001) and increase survival (139d vs 132d, P 0.05) in transgenic mice.
Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder:
A Canadian (2001) study found that American ginseng, when combined with Ginkgo biloba extracts, improved symptoms of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. The open, uncontrolled study of 4 weeks duration included 36 children. 44% had fewer social problems, and 74% improved on the Conner's Parent Rating. 14% reported adverse events of which 2 (6%) were considered related to the medication.
Chronic pain:
A 2001 study in Hong Kong found that mice fed an extract of American ginseng spent significantly less time biting injured paws. The authors concluded that ginseng may have an analgesic effect in the chronic pain model.
Stamina and Endurance
Ginseng appears to improve endurance by exerting an effect on the respiratory system and also on energy metabolism.
A placebo controlled trial on 15 young healthy men found a significant reduction in ventilation during submaximal exercise following ingestion of 1 gram American ginseng powder. The results suggest that ginseng can increase respiratory endurance and support the observation of Forgo (1983) that American ginseng improves cardiovascular endurance during submaximal work.
In a Canadian study, injecting rats with ginsenosides Rg1 or Rb1 significantly prolonged aerobic exercise endurance of non-trained animals. Both plasma free fatty acid (FFA) and glucose levels were raised during exercise. Liver and muscle glycogen levels were higher in treated animals after exhaustive exercise. The author hypothesised that both Rg1 and Rb1 altered fuel homeostasis during prolonged exercise by increasing FFA utilisation over glucose for cellular energy demands.
Sexual Function (male & female)
Virility:
Ginseng has been traditionally used to treat sexual impotency and increase virility. The US National Plant Data Center states that "in China, it (American ginseng) is a panacea for sexual impotency". The University of Maryland Medical Center reported that a study of 46 men found an increase in sperm count as well as motility.
Aphrodisiac:
Ginseng was used by both the ancient Chinese and Native Americans as an aphrodisiac, and it is widely used for this purpose today. An Italian review stated that American ginseng has aphrodisiac and adaptogenic properties that enhances physical performance (including sexual), promotes vitality and increases resistance to stress and aging. The author stated that the adaptogenic properties of ginseng are believed to affect the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, resulting in elevated plasma corticotrophin and corticosteroid levels.
Sexual dysfunction:
Animal studies in the USA support the use of American ginseng in the treatment of sexual dysfunction. There is evidence that ginsenosides can facilitate penile erection by directly inducing vasodilation and relaxation of the corpus cavernosum. This appeared to be moderated by nitric oxide release from endothelial cells and perivascular nerves. A US researcher found that American ginseng also affects the central nervous system and has been shown to alter the activity of hypothalamic catecholamines involved in the facilitation of copulatory behaviour and hormone secretion in mice. Pre-treatment with American ginseng reduced the period between successive mountings and also successive ejaculations. She postulated that the effects of ginseng may not be due to hormonal secretion, but a result of the direct effect on nervous and gonadal tissues.
When Chinese researchers performed unpleasant things on mice, their mounting behaviour and plasma testosterone were adversely affected. Injecting them with ginsenoside Rb1 prevented this problem.
Female fertility, menopause & menstrual problems:
American ginseng has some estrogenic properties that may be useful in treating menopause symptoms, but without carcinogenic tendency. It was used in traditional Native American medicine to increase fertility and treat menstrual problems. The Cherokees referred to ginseng as "The Plant of Life" and used it to help relieve female problems such as menstrual cramps and excessive bleeding.
The US dietary and Supplement Information Bureau states that ginseng is commonly used to treat menopausal symptoms. It cites a study involving 384 postmenopausal women which compared the use of ginseng to a placebo for relief of menopause related symptoms. Benefit was seen for depression and general well-being and health. However no advantage was seen for hot flashes and physical changes that occur to the vagina and surrounding area.
Another study supported improvement in vaginal lubrication in menopausal women.
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